Report writing

LECTURE NOTES: REPORT WRITING
Reports are a part of our daily life, starting from school
reports to news reports on TV and Radio even many kinds
of reports we are required to submit in the course of
work.
Government sets up committees and commissions to
report on various issues of, political, social and economic
importance. Such committees work out a detailed plan to
conduct surveys and collect data from various sources,
and then submit their findings and recommendations in
the form of a technical report.
A report is a major form of business/professional/technical
communication. In writing a report, a person who
possesses certain facts, ideas, or suggestions useful for
courses of action transmits this information to another
person who wants to use it. In short, we can say that a
report is usually a piece of realistic writing, based on
proof, containing organized information on a particular
topic and analysis on that particular topic. It is formal in
nature and is written for a specific purpose and audience.
It discusses the topic in profundity and contains
conclusions and recommendations if required.
OBJECTIVES
Given below are some objectives of writing a report:
• To present an evidence of skilful work (Project report)
• To record an experiment (laboratory report or a primary
research report)
• To document a research finding or any type of technical
specification (a report on the details of a new product)
• To document schedules, timetables (a report based on a
long-term plan)
• To document up to date position (an inspection report)
• To record and clarify intricate information for future
reference (a report on policies and procedures)
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• To present information to a great number of people (an
annual report)
• To present an organized information on a specific topic
(a report describing the working of various divisions of
an organization)
• To advise actions that can be considered in solving
certain problems, (recommendatory report)
Knowing the objectives now we will focus on some of the
characteristics of a report.
CHARACTERISTICS
∑ Reader-orientation: A good report is always
reader-oriented. While drafting a report, it is necessary to
keep in mind the persons who are going to read it. A
report meant for the layman will be different from one
meant for technical experts.
∑ Factual Details : Your report should be very detailed and
based on fact. Your report should be in details. The
scientific accuracy of facts is very essential for a report.
Since reports invariably lead to decision-making,
inaccurate facts may lead to unsuccessful decisions.
∑ Accuracy: Reports reflect their purpose. While putting
together a report, your investigation, scrutiny, and
recommendations should be directed by this central
purpose. Accuracy gives unity and consistency to your
report and makes it a valuable document.
∑ Relevance: The facts presented in a report should be
relevant. While it is essential that every fact included in a
report has a bearing on the central purpose, it is equally
essential to see that all the relevant information should
be included. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing;
exclusion of relevant facts makes it incomplete and is
probable to mislead.
∑ Objectivity of recommendations: If recommendations are
made at the end of a report, they must be neutral and to
the point. They should come as a logical conclusion to
investigation and analysis. They must not reveal any
egotism on the part of the writer.
∑ Simple and unambiguous language: A good report is
written in simple and in an unambiguous language. It is a
document of practical utility; hence it should be
grammatically accurate, brief and clear.
(a) Grammatical correctness: The grammatical accuracy
of language of a good report is of primary importance. It
is one of the basic conditions of a good report compared
to any other
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piece of composition. Remember that faulty construction
of sentences makes the meaning difficult to understand
and unclear.
(b) Brevity : A report should be as brief as possible.
Brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor
should it be at the cost of completeness. Sometime
detailed discussion of facts is needed. Then this
discussion should not be evaded.
(c) Clarity : A good report should be absolutely clear.
Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. Report
writers must proceed methodically. They should make
their purpose clear, define their sources, state their
findings, and finally make necessary recommendations.
They should divide their report into short paragraphs
with headings, and insert other suitable signposts for
making the report clear.
∑ Homogeneity: Your report should deal with one topic at a
time. All the sections of your report should focus on that
particular topic.
∑ Documentation: Technical reports acquire more value
when adequately documented by acknowledging sources
of information in an appropriate style.
∑ Special format: The technical report uses a format having
cover, title page, table of contents, list of illustrations,
letter of transmittal, and appendices. These have to be
prepared according to a set standard.
∑ Illustrations: Most technical reports contain illustrations,
which may be tables, graphs, maps, drawings, charts, or
photographs.
IMPORTANCE OF REPORTS
A report is a basic management tool used in decision
making. Hence it is extremely important for organizations
of all types. Reports are vital, especially for large-scale
organizations that are engaged in multifarious activities
handled by different departments. Their top executives
cannot keep a personal watch over all these activities. So
they have to base their decisions on the reports they get
from the heads of various departments.
• A report is the only tangible product of a professional.
All the efforts of engineers, academicians, and
researchers culminate in reports which convey to others
the efficiency with which they carried out their
assignments.
• Reports enable decision making and problem solving in
organizations.
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Based on the information presented, analysis discussed,
or the suggestions rendered, administrators can make
important decisions and solve problems of serious
concern.
• Reports help the authorities in planning new ventures
and in evaluating men and material.
If an organization wants to open a new branch in a
nearby locality, it can plan for the same more effectively
after going through the feasibility report prepared for this
purpose. It can also evaluate a newly introduced machine
or product by listening to or reading the report prepared
for this purpose.
• Reports are an important means of information
dissemination within and outside the organization.
Many of the routine reports such as inspection reports,
inventory reports, or annual reports transmit information
across and outside the organization.
• Reports serve as a measure of the growth, progress, or
success of an organization.
The progress of any organization depends on the quality
and quantity of information flown through its personnel
in the form of oral or written reports. For instance, an
organization focussing on research can bring out reports
from time to time to provide information on the progress
being made.
• Reports serve as a valuable repository of information.
Organizations of various kinds preserve reports of
importance and value for a long time so that they can
refer to these reports whenever needed. For example, an
academic institution can refer to the previous assessment
reports it had received from some committee in order to
improve its performance.
• Reports reveal gaps in thinking.
When a report is read and comprehended, the recipient
comes to know whether the report writer had thought
and proceeded logically and whether he/she had
conducted an in-depth study of the topic. If there is some
gap in logical reasoning or thinking on the part of the
writer, reports are sure to reveal them.
• Reports develop certain skills in the writer.
Reports not only help organizations but also help the
writer to develop certain skills, such as the ability to
organize, to evaluate, and to communicate with greater
accuracy.
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CATEGORIES OF REPORTS
On the basis of purpose , frequency , mode of reporting ,
length , approach & target audience reports can be
classified as follows:
• Informative, Analytical (Purpose)
• Periodic, Special (Frequency)
• Oral, Written (Mode of presentation)
∑ Long, short (length).
∑ Formal, informal (approach)
∑ Individual, group(target audience)
INFORMATIVE REPORTS: An informative report entails all
details and facts pertaining to the problem. As the
presentation of information is the basic purpose of the
report, details are worked out in a systematic and logical
manner. The structural orientation and its significance in
an informational report should be clearly evident to the
reader.
Informative reports are simple and self-explanatory. The
introduction is followed by a presentation of information
or facts and a conclusion, where all the details are
collated in brief as a recap of earlier sections.
Recommendations are not there in this type of report.
To write an informational report, all you need is to collect
data, arrange it in an appropriate order and present it in
a style appropriate to technical writing. Examples of
informational reports include conference reports, seminar
reports, trip reports, and so on.
ANALYTICAL REPORTS: An analytical report is also known
as interpretative or investigative report. If a report
merely presents facts relevant to an issue or a situation, it
is informative. On the other hand, if it analyses the facts,
draws conclusions, and makes recommendations, it is
described as analytical report. For instance, a report
which presents production figures for a particular period
is informative. But if it goes into the causes of lower/
higher production in that period, it becomes analytical.
The stages in this type of report are- proper identification
of the problem, analysis, and subsequent interpretation.
Recommendations or suggestions are then incorporated in
the report, depending upon what is required by the
report writer. Thus, in a problem-solving method, the
steps observed are as follows:
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• Drafting problem statement
• Evolving criteria
• Suggesting alternatives and evaluation
• Drawing conclusion(s) and making
recommendations
The structure of an analytical report may follow any of
two patterns—inductive or deductive.
Examples of analytical reports include project reports,
feasibility reports, market research reports etc.
PERIODIC REPORTS: Periodic or routine reports are either
informational or analytical in their purpose. As they are
prepared and presented at regular, prearranged intervals
in the usual routine of business they are called periodic
or routine reports. They may be submitted annually,
semi-annually, quarterly, monthly, fortnightly, weekly, or
even daily.
Generally such reports contain a mere statement of facts
in detail, in a summarized form, or in the layout of a
prescribed form, without a recommendation. Progress
reports, inspection reports, annual reports, and sales
reports all come under this category.
SPECIAL REPORTS: Special reports are related to a single
occasion or circumstances. A report on the possibility of
opening a new branch, on the unrest among staff in a
particular branch, or the causes behind the recent
accidents in a factory is special reports. Special reports
deal with non-recurrent problems.
ORAL AND WRITTEN REPORTS: Reports can be oral or
written depending upon the mode of presentation. When
you rejoin duty after attending a seminar, you meet your
officer and report about the discussions of the seminar.
This type of reporting comes under oral reporting.
An oral report is simple and easy to present. It may
communicate an impression or an observation. While oral
reports are useful, written reports are always preferred as
they enjoy several advantages over the oral ones. The
table below shows the varying advantages and
disadvantages of oral and written reports.
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Oral and Written Reports:
Oral Reports Written Reports
• Instant feedback is possible • Instant feedback is not possible
• Do not add to the permanent • Contribute to the permanent
records of the organization as the records of the organization and so the
information so the facts can be facts cannot be denied
denied
• Audience can think over on these
• Audience needs to grasp quickly reports and understand at their own
as and when these are presented pace
• May be burdened with irrelevant • More accurate and precise as the
facts and overlook important ones writer will be careful in putting down
• Cannot be referred to again and
the facts in writing.
again • Can be edited, reviewed, stored,
LONG & SHORT REPORTS: Reports are classified based on
the frequency of appearance, length, degree of formality
and purpose. As is evident, long and short reports are
classified based on the length. When there is a definite
purpose, short reports are suitable as they are precise
and concise. Their structure is not very elaborate and the
focus is not on format as well. Short reports include memo
and letter reports. A short report usually begins with an
introduction, followed by the information & then the
conclusion. However, the format may vary depending on
the situation.
In contrast, long reports place a lot of emphasis on the
format. It has got elaborate structure & consists of
abundant information. Moreover, it is properly organised
and analyzed. It is an outcome of detailed research and
data collection. These can be further classified as
informative, analytical & recommendatory reports. Long
reports also have a lot of illustrations to support the
discussion.
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FORMAL AND NON - FORMAL REPORTS: Reports can be
formal or informal depending on their nature, scope and
length.
A formal report is usually the result of through
investigation of a problem, condition or situation. Formal
reports are comparatively longer & need elaborate
description & discussion. They usually follow a fixed
format with predetermined elements, according to the
information presented. The length of the formal report
may vary from a few pages to hundreds of pages. Formal
reports can be informational, analytical, routine or
special. Example of the formal reports are project reports,
technical reports etc.
A non formal report, on the other hand, could be brief
account of a specific business or professional activity. It is
usually written to provide introductory information about
a routine affair. Non formal reports are usually short and
do not need elaborate discussion. As the content is
generally insufficient for a formal report, an informal
report may involve the use of printed forms, letter
formats, or memo formats. Although non formal reports
are usually routine, they may be either informational or
analytical & may use the oral or written form. Examples
of the non formal reports include laboratory reports, daily
production reports etc.
INDIVIDUAL & GROUP REPORTS: When a report is
classified based on the target audience, it is classified as
individual & group report. A report presents the
information in an organized manner in the most usable
form to the set of people. It may describe the series of
event the concerned people. For example, it may present
the government’s projected expenditure of the entire year
to all the citizens of the nation. Another report on the
admission pattern in the medical college can be presented
to aspiring doctors & their parents. These two are the
examples of group report.
However, some reports are of concern only to an
individual & are not meant for the general reader. These
include the attendance report of an employee or an
individual’s progress report. These reports are of more
interest to the top authority than anyone else. These
reports are called individual reports. The format and
design of the two reports may not vary much, but for the
individual report the formalities can be dispensed with, &
a personal touch can be added.
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Categories of Reports at a glance:
Criteria Types Description Examples
Informational Objective Conference reports,
presentation of data seminar reports, trip
without analysis or reports.
Function
interpretation.
Analytical Presentation of data Project reports,
with analysis & Feasibility reports,
interpretation. market research
reports.
Routine Presentation of Daily production
routine information reports, monthly
sales reports, annual
reports.
Periodicity
Special Presentation of Inquiry reports,
specific information research reports,
related to a thesis, dissertation.
condition, situation,
problem or occasion
Oral Face to face Accident reports,
presentation of sales reports, joining
information reports, conference
Communicative form
reports
Written Presentation of the Project reports,
information in the progress reports,
written form. research reports.
Formal Long report with Annual reports,
elaborate discussion thesis, project
Nature, scope &
& description. reports, technical
reports.
length
Non formal Short reports Laboratory reports,
daily production
report.
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TYPES OF THE REPORTS
There are many different types of reports. The basic
format remains the same but they vary in respect of the
purpose & extent of the formality.
Introductory Reports: As the name suggests, these reports
introduce some topics but do not dig deep into any aspect.
They just skim the surface of the issue, to give the
audience a preliminary feel of it. Therefore, these are
short reports and do not need subsections and
subdivisions. The contents are brief and to the point.
Progress Reports: These reports give regular updates about
the progression of a particular ongoing project. It states
the expected or set deadlines and then describes the
work done till the date of writing the report. In case of
delay, it specifies the reason for it and the support that
can be provided to finish the work. Progress report
format can vary as per the project undertaken. It can be
formal in case of the report on the progress of the
building or it can be very informal in case of the
student’s thesis work progress. In some situations it has a
pro forma to be filled out.
Incident reports : These reports look more like an article
than a report. It is used to describe an event or an
accident without distorting the facts to a person who
could not witness the scene. It is very important to
maintain accuracy & truthfulness. The order of
presentation of information is important. In general, the
events constituting the incident are presented in
chronological order.
Feasibility reports : While undertaking a new project or
starting an establishment, the possibility of launching it
should be assessed. The pros & cons of it & the cost,
gains, glitches should be thoroughly studied. The report
studies the problem, opportunity and plan for taking
action. The conclusions are very important as they
indicate whether the project being considered is feasible,
not feasible or partly feasible, & hence helps decision
making.
Marketing Reports: These reports are persuasive in nature
& begins with marketing objectives, stating the available
resources, plan of actions & goals. It is similar to the
feasibility reports in terms of style, length and content.
This report is prepared by the marketing department
while promoting or launching the product or while
assessing the effectiveness of existing strategies. It
contains the details about segmentation, targeting and
positioning. A market can be about the global, domestic
or regional market. It would also include the customers’
perspective about a particular product vis – a – vis
competition. The report should include the effectiveness
of the promotional, pricing, and distribution strategies.
Laboratory Test Reports: These reports document the
various experiments conducted in the laboratory. The
observation, calculation & results sections of these reports
must be prepared with utmost accuracy and precision.
These reports have the following sections:
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∑ Aim
∑ Theory
∑ Apparatus
∑ Procedures
∑ Observation
∑ Calculation
∑ Results
∑ Conclusion
∑ Discussion.
∑ Inference
∑ Possible source of errors
∑ Precautions.
Project reports: A project report can be defined as a
sequence of unique, complex & connected activities
having one goal or purpose and that must be completed
by a specific time, within a budget & according to
specification. At the end of the project the person or the
team who has accomplished it writes a report explaining
the details. Such reports generally include the title page,
certificate, acknowledgments, contents, abstract, the main
body consisting of three or four sections, appendices,
references, glossary etc.
FORMATS OF THE REPORTS
Your report may have any one of the following formats:
• Letter
• Memo
• Manuscript
• Pre-Printed form
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Letter format : When you send short reports of a few
pages to outside the organization, you can opt for a letter
format. Besides all the routine parts of a letter, these
reports include headings, illustrations, and footnotes. The
only difference between business letters and letter reports
is in organization of the content and the writing style. All
parts of a business letter are used here except the inside
address. A letter format contains all the elements of a
letter along with some additional sections such as
illustrations, references and so on. Heading may be used
in the letter report. The letter format may be used for
informational, analytical, routine, special, or non – formal
reports. For example, there is an accident on the shop
floor in a company & report has to be sent to the
insurance company. Other examples of the letter format
include evaluation reports, feasibility reports, survey
reports, legal reports and so on.
SAMPLE REPORTS: Letter Report Format:
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- Internet (source)
Memo format: A report you send to somebody within
your organization will be in a memo format. Your
analysis, conclusions, and recommendations are included
in the main text part of the memorandum. A memo
format should contain all the elements of a standard
memo. In addition, it may contain a few extra sections.
Like a report in the letter form, a memo report should
contain headings for easy reading and reference. The
memo format may be used for all types of reports, that is,
informational, analytical, routine, special or non-formal.
Memo Report: sample
ARYAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
PUNE (MAHARASHTRA)
INTEROFFICE MEMORANDUM
To: Vice Chancellor, Student Welfare Division
From: Head Warden
Date: 17 March 2011
Subject: Negative effects of Internet facilities
Please refer to your letter No. SPF/IS/2011 in which you
have asked me to study the negative effects of Internet
facilities provided by the Institute. I would like to present
my findings and recommendations.
Findings
The data for the report was collected by interviews with
wardens, Mess Managers and the Chief of Information
Processing Centre. Also, the medical records of the
students were collected from the office of the Chief
Medical Officer.
Physical Problems
A preliminary look into the medical records shows that
about 65% of the students owning a computer and regular
users of the IPC have complained about some physical
problem or the other during the past one year. Dr T.K
CHANDRA, Chief Medical Officer, told me that these were
the symptoms of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS), a deadly
disease that affects many computer users all over the
globe. He also explained that these were due to excessive
time spent in front of the computer, improper sitting
posture, and the lack of physical exercise amongst the
students. Also lack of proper sleep is a cause of this fast
growing disease.
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Academic Performance
Another disturbing drift has been the decline in academic
standards of the student. Most of the wardens and
teachers have complained about the declining academic
output of the students. From the talks with Dr T.M
CHATTERJEE, Chief, IPC, I have concluded that most of
the students make improper use of the Internet facility.
The most common use is for chatting and watching
movies over the Web. Though listening to music is also
attributed as a problem, one may say that music is good
for the students as it has a soothing effect. This abuse of
the facility hampers the mental development of the
student. Many have got so hooked to it that they live in a
virtual world and the only friends they have are chat
friends. This is an alarming fact and the trend must be
stopped from growing.
Food habits
The food habits of the students have also been a cause of
concern lately. Most Mess Managers agree that the
attendance for meals has gone down considerably since
the last year, after the introduction of the computer
centre. Also, the growing use of junk food by the students
is a cause of concern, according to Dr Chandra.
Recommendations
Given below are a few suggestions which may help in
tackling the problem in question:
∑ Undesirable sites should be blocked
∑ The amount of time spent by a student in the computer
lab should be fixed to no more than 4 hours. This can be
easily implemented according to the IPC Chief.
∑ Awareness should be raised among students about CTS
and also how to prevent it.
∑ Student participation in sports and cultural activities
must be encouraged to shift their attention from
computers.
∑ Considering Dr Chandra’s advice, chairs in the computer
centre should be changed to specially designed ones for
more comfort.
∑ The computer lab must be shut down between 12 PM and
9 AM to give students proper rest.
I hope that this report will give you an insight into the
nature of the problem and also its possible solutions. I
would be glad to provide any clarification or additional
information required in this regard.
Amit Goyal
Head Warden.
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Manuscript format: This is the most commonly used
format for reports and is generally used for reports that
are formal. The length of such reports can range from a
few pages to hundred. Manuscript form can be used for
all types of reports—informational, analytical, or routine.
As the length increases, these reports include more
elements such as abstract, summary, appendix, glossary,
and so on. These reports are divided in sections and sub
sections, each with a clear heading. These headings and
sub headings are organised in logical sequence. While
preparing a report in the manuscript form, the writer
needs to be careful about its structure and elements. A
structured report will help in thinking clearly & deciding
to put each fact or idea. It also makes reading easy and
helps the readers find the information they need.
Manuscript Report: sample
- Internet (source)
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Pre - Printed format: Reports containing routine matter
and which are periodical in nature may be written in a
form prescribed by the organization. All you need to do is
to fill in the blanks in a pre-printed form. These reports
are generally used to collect routine information. A detail
descriptions need not to be provided.
There are three main advantages of using printed forms
for reporting. Firstly, they are systematic & make for easy
reading. The readers can easily locate & identify
important information. Secondly, there are more objective
& factual with little scope for the writer to be subjective
on the content. There is no subjective interpretation of
the material used in the report. Facts are recorded quite
objectively. Finally, they save time. It is less time
consuming to prepare report in printed form than
preparing reports in other formats. Examples are, trip
reports, conference reports, laboratory reports, inspection
reports, confidential performance reports and so on.
Sample Printed format : Inspection Report :
EXCELTechvisionPvt.Ltd
Ph. No. 422335 Fax: 0234-52998 CUSTOMER
CALLFEEDBACKREPORT
Call Registration
Number:_______________________________Date:________
Customer:_________________________________________________
Location _____________________________________________________
Sys. Model: SI.No.: Peripheral/Add-on Model: SI. No.:
ServiceType Warranty/AMC/ Product Home
Chargeable/Others PC/Desktop/Server/
Sun/IBM/Datacomm/
Others
Call Type Ins/CM/PM/Proj/Ugj/Upg/Siteinsp/Other Call Category HW/SW
s
Problem Reported:
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_______________________________________________________________________
Event Date Time Event Date Time
Call Reported Start of Service
Call Assigned End of Service
Travel Time Engineer Handson
Time
Action Taken:
______________________________________________________________________
CallStatus: □ Closed □ Pending for Customers □ Pending for Spares
□ pending for others
Part Replaced: □ Yes Q No □Underobservation
PartNumber PartDescription Quantity PartSerialNo.
Part Replaced
Part Removed
For Customer's Use: Please rate this call by ticking an
option:
□ Satisfied □ Extremely Satisfied □ Dissatisfied □
Extremely Dissatisfied D Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
Customer's Feedback:
________________________________________________
User Name Engineer Name :
EmailID/Tel.No
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Signature Signature :
Date Date
For OfficeUse Checked By :
HOW TO WRITE A REPORT ?
Writing a report has the following stages:
PREWRITING:
Before actually beginning to draft a report, you need to
undertake various tasks, which may be referred to as the
preliminary steps to writing a report. This includes:
• Understanding the scope and purpose
• Analysing the audience
• Investigating the sources of information
• Organizing the material
• Making an outline
Purpose and Scope
Purpose means the objective of your study and Scope
means the extent of coverage
Assume that you, as the senior engineer of an
organization, have been asked by your department head
to study why the recently constructed flyover did not
receive the expected feedback from the users. You are
also required to suggest some measures to modify the
same. Unless the objectives of your task that your report
involves are clear, for example- identifying the causes of
disappointment, and suggesting remedial measures, you
will not be able to proceed. It is the purpose of the report
that enables you to decide the amount or method of data
to be collected, the quantity and quality of the
information to be included, and also the methodology to
be adopted in analysing the situation and arriving at a
solution.
Further, it is essential to understand the nature of the
report. In most of the reports required by government
organizations, the objectives are clearly stated as terms
of reference . These terms are specific instructions given
to the report writer as to what objectives are to be
achieved through the report.
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See the sample given below: You are directed:
∑ Identifying the causes behind an incident for
example, an accident that occurred.
∑ Analysing the preventive measures that was present
to prevent that accident.
∑ To suggest some preventive measures to stop the
recurrence of such incidents. Whenever the terms of
reference are clearly specified you need to include them
as they are, while stating the purpose of undertaking the
task which your report involves.
Audience
In general, the audience can be categorized into three
types as discussed:
Experts -Experts are the people who know the theory and
the product inside and out. They designed it, tested it,
and they know everything about it. Often, they operate in
academic settings, or in research and development areas
of the government and business worlds.
Executives –Executives are people who make business,
economic, administrative, legal, governmental, and
political decisions on the matter that the experts and
technicians work with. If it is a new product, they decide
whether to produce and market it. Executives may
sometimes have as little technical knowledge about the
subject as non-specialists.
Non-specialists- Non-specialists have the least technical
knowledge of all. They want to use the new product to
accomplish their tasks, or, they may just be curious about
a specific technical matter and want to learn about it—but
for no specific, practical reason.
Investigating the Sources of Information
To accomplish the objectives of your report, you require
facts and ideas. You may find them in company records,
reports, bulletins, pamphlets, and periodicals; you may
use library sources to look for information. The important
means of collecting data for your report are:
• Personal observation
• searching library material, internal records, or
databases
• preparing and circulating questionnaires
• conducting personal interviews or telephone interviews
Library Search
When reading to secure information for your report, you
may find the following suggestions helpful:
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• Visualize the facts. Connect words to the facts to which
they refer.
• Scan the material for important points found in topic
sentences.
• Examine based on fact statements and figures for their
accuracy and logic.
• Understand the dictionary meanings and connotations of
the words.
• Distinguish between vague and definite statements,
between hasty generalizations and careful judgements,
between opinion and fact.
Internal Records
Most of the relevant information is already contained in
the old files of an institution. Sometimes there are
precedents, and old findings may be of considerable help.
So it is very important to go through the old files of the
organization. Declining sales or rising cost of production
are recurring phenomena. And their causes are also
usually similar. In these cases, old files may provide some
valuable information.
Database Search
You can collect data for your report by surfing various
databases, the addresses of which are obtained through
Internet search. But if you are not effective and efficient
in your searching, you may end up with information
overload or mere wastage of time. The following
guidelines will enable you to carry out a quick and
purposeful database search:
• Use multiple search engines: Do not limit yourself to a
single search engine, especially if you are looking for less
popular topics.
• Choose appropriate databases: You may want a good
technical/business/ academic database. However, journals
on your topic may be in a database that also includes
journals on other subjects.
• Use keywords and phrases: For instance, if you want to
write a report on 'Importance of artificial intelligence in
decision making', you would select the keywords or
phrases such as artificial intelligence, decision making,
management, and corporations. Use synonyms or word
equivalents whenever possible, and use quotation marks
around phrases to look for the entire phrase instead of
separate words.
• Use appropriate order: Search engines look for the
words exactly as you key them in.
• Avoid stop words: Stop words are those words the
computer disregards and will not search for. Common
ones arc: a, an, the, of, by, with, for, and to.
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• Use variations of your terms: Use abbreviations (MD,
CEO), related terms (group, team, collaboration), different
spellings (fiber, fibre), singular and plural forms
(analysis, analyses), and nouns and adjectives
(environment, environmental).
• Refine your search if necessary: If you end up with
more than 60 or 100 links to sort through, refine your
search. If your first page of results does not have
something of interest, you have entered inadequate or too
few words.
• Use appropriate search operators: Narrow or broaden
your search by including
AND, OR, AND NOT, WITHIN, NEAR, or ADJ. They can
help you create complex, precise search strategies.
(Examples: poverty AND crime AND gender; radiation NOT
nuclear; endangered ADJ species; phylogeny NEAR
ontogeny; orchids AND growing OR planning.)
Personal Observation
Given below are some tips for successful personal
observation:
• Be objective and unbiased in your observation.
• Be focussed on what to observe. Carry
paper and a pen to make notes.
• Do not rely entirely on your memory.
• Make a clear distinction between what you have seen
and what you have felt.
• Check the accuracy of facts.
• Note down all observations on the spot.
Interviews
Interviews conducted with the purpose of collecting data
for a report are called data collection interviews. They can
be either face-to-face/or telephonic. In general, data
collection interviews are conducted for the following
specific purposes:
• To determine facts known to a single individual or
group of people
• To substantiate the data collected through other sources
• To gather facts or subjective data such as attitudes,
preferences, opinions, tastes, or emotional reactions
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. A successful interview requires careful planning and
organization to ensure that you get the information you
really need.
Telephone Interview
Sometimes interviews are conducted over the telephone.
Such interviews are useful for opinion polls, when a
limited number of questions are to be asked, and are
usually more expensive than the personal interview. The
telephone interview permits wide coverage of either
particular or general groups, and uses a representative or
random sample.
Questionnaires
A survey is valid if it measures what it is intended to
measure. Surveys are generally conducted for the
following purposes:
• To collect data from a large number of people scattered
over a wide geographical area
• To secure information on behaviour characteristics
• To gather opinions on attitudes
• To obtain facts
One of the most crucial elements of a survey is the
questionnaire. To develop questionnaires, begin by
making a list of points you need to determine. Then break
these points into specific questions, choosing an
appropriate type of question for each point. The following
guidelines will help you produce results that are both
valid and reliable.
• Ask only those questions relevant to your study.
• Provide clear instructions on how to fill out the
questionnaire.
• Keep the questionnaire short and easy to answer.
• Formulate questions that provide easily tabulated or
analysed answers.
• Ask only one thing at a time (avoid double-barrelled
questions).
• Avoid leading questions.
• Pre-test the questionnaire.
Web-based surveys (Internet surveys)
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You must have come across several surveys/opinion polls
conducted everyday by popular newspaper websites.
Internet is a medium through which you can contact
thousands and thousands of people simultaneously and
conduct surveys. These surveys have several advantages
as listed below:
• Cheaper to conduct
• Most modern means of surveying
• Can improve survey response rates
• Reach a large number of people instantly, economically
• Can be made more attractive by using graphics and
animation
Organizing the Material
Depending upon the topic, purpose, and audience, you
can organize the material/ data collected for your report
in
• The order of importance; or
• The order of occurrence;
• A combination of orders.
Order of Importance: When the data collected for your
report is not of uniform value, you may have to organize
the information in descending or ascending order of
importance.
Generally, the descending order of importance is valid for
informational reports as the reader is interested in
looking for the most important information first.
The ascending order of importance is used mainly to
create dramatic suspense and reach the climax at the end
of the report. This is inappropriate for most technical
reports, as there is no need to create suspense.
Order of occurrence is otherwise known as chronological
order. Here, the data is presented in a sequence that
depends on time that is more or less of uniform
value—none of the parts are uniquely important.
Combination of Orders This order is particularly useful in
reports involving a double assignment. A combination of
order of occurrence and order of descending importance
is fairly common. In
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short, examine the data as a whole, consider them for
completeness, their relationship to the purpose of
investigation, their total significance to the problem at
hand and then organize in an appropriate order.
Making an Outline
To prepare an effective outline, you may follow the tips
given below:
• Use nouns whenever possible.
• Use words or phrases.
• Use parallel grammatical construction.
• Use decimal numbering system.
• Follow the principle of coordination and subordination.
SAMPLE OUTLINE
Education System in India
1. Introduction
2. Status before Independence
3. Present Status
3.1. School Education
3.1.1. Primary Education
3.1.2. Secondary Education
3.1.3. Higher Secondary Education
3.2. College Education
3.3. University Education
4. Status of Women's Education
5. Merits and Demerits
6. Financial Support
7. Employment Prospects
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8. Conclusions
Follow a Suitable Numbering System :
You may use either the conventional numbering system
or the decimal numbering system to mark the levels of
headings in outline.
The conventional system uses Roman numerals to show
the main headings and the letters of the alphabet and
Arabic numerals to show the sub-headings, as shown
below:
Conventional System:
I. First-level heading
A. Second level, first part
B. Second level, second part
1. Third level, first part
2. Third Level, second part a.
Fourth level
(1) Fifth level
(a) Sixth level
II First-level heading
A. Second level, first part
B. Second level, second part
The decimal system uses whole numbers to show the
major sections. Whole numbers followed by decimal digits
show subsections. That is, the digits to the right of the
decimal show each successive step in the outline. The
following is an example of this system:
Decimal System:
1.0 First-level heading
1.1 Second level, first part
1.2 Second level, second part 1.2.1
Third level, first part
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1.2.2 Third level, second part
1.2.2.1 Fourth level, first part
1.2.2.2 Fourth level, second part
2.0 First-level heading
2.1 Second level, first part
2.2 Second level, second part
Though you can use any of these numbering systems for
your report, the decimal numbering system is more
popular and more convenient to use.
STRUCTURE OF REPORTS
Just as several organs constitute our body, various
elements combine together to structure a report. Though
many elements are listed here, you need not use all of
them in your report. While some of them may be included
in all reports, some may find a place only when your
report gets published. However, you can select the
elements of structure keeping in mind the following
parameters:
• Usefulness
• Terms of reference
• Existing practice
Usefulness refers to the need for including a particular
element. For example, when you write an informational
report, you do not require a section on recommendations.
Similarly when you prepare a report in the pre-printed
form, you need not even include any of the elements. All
you need is to just fill in the columns in the form.
Terms of reference tells you the objectives of your report.
If the terms of reference require you to suggest some
measures for improving the situation, you need to include
a section on recommendations. Otherwise, you can stop
with the section on conclusions.
Though you have several elements to constitute your
report, you are supposed to consider the existing practice
in your organization in terms of producing reports. That
is to say, if your organization does not require an abstract
or summary for a report, you can omit them.
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PREFATORY PARTS
Cover and Frontispiece :
The cover of your report not only gives it an elegant
appearance but also protects it from damage. It also
serves as a quick reference to the readers to know the
topic and the author of the report. The classification of
the report (secret/top secret) and report number may also
be mentioned in the cover page on the top left corner and
right corner respectively. You may superimpose on this
cover page some illustrations such as photographs,
drawings, diagrams, etc., provided these illustrations
reflect the contents of your report. Any such illustration
is known as frontispiece and generally it finds a place in
reports that are published. If your report is less than 10
pages or if it is bound with a transparent sheet at the top
and bottom, you need not include a cover page.
Many organizations have standard covers for reports
imprinted with the organization's name and logo.
- Internet (source)
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Title Page :
Title page is the first right hand page of your report. This
page is more or less similar to the cover page except that
it contains the following additional information:
• Name and designation of the intended audience
• Name and designation of the approving authority, if
any. (In some organizations the report does not directly
reach the recipient. It may require the approval of an
intermediary before reaching the recipient.)
- Internet (source)
Certificate:
Certain reports such as project reports, research reports,
etc. require a certificate vouching the original
contribution of the report writer. Generally, the
certificate contains the statement testifying the original
work, -place, date, and signature of the project supervisor
or guide.
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Letter of Transmittal :
The letter of transmittal (or memo of transmittal) conveys
your report to your audience. As the letter of transmittal
is the written version of what you would say if you were
handing the report directly to the person who authorized
it, its style is less formal than the rest of the report. For
example, the letter would use personal pronouns (you, I,
and we) and a conversational tone.
The transmittal letter usually appears right before the
table of contents. If your report will be widely distributed,
however, you may decide to include the letter of
transmittal only in selected copies so that you can make
certain comments to a specific audience. The contents of
a letter of transmittal are:
• Objectives/Terms of reference
• Scope
• Methodology adopted
• Highlights of your analysis
• Important results
• Significance of your study
• Suggestions
• Any other details which may enable the audience to
understand your report better
• Acknowledgements
Such a letter typically begins with a statement such as
'Here is the report you asked me to prepare on the ...’
The rest includes information about the scope of the
report, the methods used to complete the study, and the
limitations that became evident. In the middle section of
the letter, you may also highlight important points or
sections of the report, make comments on side issues,
give suggestions for follow-up studies, and offer any
details that will help readers understand and use the
report. You may also wish to acknowledge help given by
others. The concluding paragraph is a note of thanks for
having been given the report assignment, an expression
of enthusiasm to discuss the report, and an offer to assist
with future projects.
If the report does not have a synopsis, the letter of
transmittal may summarize the major findings,
conclusions, and recommendations. This material would
be placed after the opening of the letter.
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Acknowledgements :
This is a list of persons who you would like to thank for
their advice, support, or assistance of any kind. It is not
only customary but also necessary to acknowledge even
the small help rendered by people. While writing the
'Acknowledgements', do remember the following
guidelines:
∑ Categorize your audience: courtesy, real help,
emotional support, secretarial assistance.
∑ Vary your expressions: do not begin each sentence with 'I
think'; such a monotonous beginning will reduce the
impact of your acknowledgements.
Here are a few openings:
Our sincere appreciation to
Thanks are due to
We owe a lot to
Mere thanks in few words would be highly
I am extremely grateful to
My heartfelt thanks are due to
I acknowledge with thanks the support rendered by
Inadequate to express my sincere thanks to
∑ Avoid clichés such as:
First…secondly…thirdly First and
foremost
Last but not the least
I take this opportunity to thank
∑ Divide the content (if long) into well-structured
paragraphs.
∑ Avoid listing the names.
Table of Contents:
'Table of Contents', generally titled 'Contents', helps your
reader locate a specific topic easily and quickly. If your
report is short (ten pages or less), you need not include
this element in your
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report. This table is the final form of your report outline,
or simply known as frozen outline with page numbers. It
indicates in outline form the coverage, sequence, and
relative importance of information presented in your
report. The 'Contents' page is especially helpful to readers
who wish to read only a few selected topics of your
report.
'Contents' lists all the three parts, namely Prefatory, Main,
and the Supplementary Parts, of your report along with
their page numbers.
List of Illustrations :
This serves as the 'Contents' page for all the illustrations
which appear in your report. Except tables, all other
illustrations like graphs, maps, drawings, charts, etc. are
grouped under the heading ‘Figures’. The List of
Illustrations gives the titles and page numbers of all
visual aids. When tables and figures are numbered
separately, they should also be listed separately. If you
find it difficult to accommodate both the lists on a single
page, you can list them on two separate pages. These lists
would enable the reader to quickly locate any specific
illustration.
Abstract :
An abstract gives the essence of your report. In business
reports it is known as synopsis. The length of an abstract
is generally 2 to 5 per cent of the total report. The length
and readership of your report decide whether an abstract
is to be included. If your report is less than ten pages it
does not require either abstract or summary. (While an
abstract is more appropriate in specialist-to-specialist
communication, a summary is meant for all readers, it is
longer than an abstract.) If the report is of 10-50 pages it
should have an abstract. If it is voluminous or more than
50 pages, it needs both abstract and summary. An abstract
is especially relevant in specialist-to-specialist
communication where the reader would be expected to
have some background knowledge of the subject. It does
not allow abbreviation, acronym, or illustration. It tells
the reader the following:
• Objective
• Main findings or accomplishment
• Significance
Summary:
Summary is longer than an abstract (5-10 per cent of the
length of the report). Business reports name 'Summary'
as 'Executive Summary'. It presents the entire report in a
nutshell. Summaries contain headings, adequately
developed text, and even visual aids. A well-written
summary allows your reader to form an impression of
how well you have dealt with the topic of your
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report. Generally, the summary of a report presents
gleanings from various parts of the report in the same
sequence as they appear in the report. After reading the
summary, your audience should know the essentials of
the report and be able to make a decision. Later, when
they find time, they may read certain parts of the report
to obtain additional detail.
Preface :
Preface is the preliminary message from the writer to the
reader. It is quite similar to the letter of transmittal,
except that it does not formally transmit the report. It
seeks to help the reader appreciate and understand the
report. The contents of a preface are:
• Factors that led you to the report
• Organization of your report
• Highlights
• Significance
• Acknowledgements. Generally, the preface appears only
when your report gets published. Copyright Notice :
Copyright is a form of protection that covers published
and unpublished literary, scientific, and artistic works,
whatever the form of expression, provided such work is
executed in a tangible or material form. Copyright laws
grant the creator the exclusive right to reproduce,
prepare copied works, distribute, perform, and display
the work publicly. For example, a copyright statement
that reads '© Copyright 1998, OUP, India’ means that the
Oxford University Press of India has legal monopoly over
the work, which was produced in 1998.
MAIN TEXT
INTRODUCTION
The function of an Introduction is to put the whole report
in viewpoint and to provide a smooth, sound opening for
it. It presents the subject or problem to the readers and
grabs their attention. A good Introduction must furnish
the readers with sufficient material concerning the
investigation and problem. An introduction includes the
following information:
• Background of the report
Conditions/events giving rise to the project or survey
need to be discussed here. Details of previous
investigations, and studies can also be included if there is
significant time gap.
• Purpose and Scope
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The background will logically lead to the purpose of the
report. If the investigator has received the Terms of
Reference, they can be presented verbally. Otherwise the
objectives have to be clearly specified.
• Authorization
Mention the authority who has assigned you to do this
project/conduct this survey. In other
words, mention the recipient's name and designation.
• Basic principles or theories involved
Outline the important theories and principles you have
used for analysing the data.
• Methods of gathering data
Mention what methods you have used or sources you have
consulted for collecting the data.
• General plan in developing the solution (brief outline of
methodology) Outline the methodology adopted in your
analysis.
• General structure of the report (organization of various
sections)
The Introduction may contain sub-headings such as
objectives and procedures, which serve as significant
guideposts for the readers.
Always end your Introduction with a general plan of the
report.
DISCUSSION
Discussion is the most voluminous part of your report,
containing information that supports your conclusion and
recommendations, as well as your analysis, logic, and
interpretation of the information. Here, information and
data are presented, analysed, and interpreted. The writer
must decide between pertinent data to include in the text
and less important information to omit or refer to the
appendix. Meanings, ideas, and facts are made clear to
the reader. Comparisons are made; facts are evaluated;
significant relationships are drawn. The solution of a
problem may be given with an explanation of its
advantages and disadvantages. Tables, charts, and other
media for presenting figures and data are used. Emphasis
is on the results and their interpretation. The Discussion
should lead the reader through the same reasoning
process that the author used to reach the conclusions and
show him that they are sound.
CONCLUSIONConclusion is that section of the report
where you bring together all the essential points
developed in the discussion.
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The function of this section is to bring the Discussion to a
close. It also refers to the logical inferences drawn, the
judgments formed on the basis of analysis of data
presented in the report, or to the findings of the
investigation.
Conclusions are the result of reasoned analysis and
judgement of the data in the report and serve as a basis
for recommendations growing out of the study. They may
be summary or analytical in nature. In summary, the
conclusion section is a recapitulation of the significant
points developed in the Discussion section. Concluding
statements are supported by the facts in the Discussion
section.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations relate to the action that is to be taken
as a result of the report. They are supported by the
conclusions, and they are aimed towards accomplishing
the purpose of the report.
Like conclusions, recommendations may take the form of
a formal, long report. Recommendations are generally
presented at last. They do not, however, always appear at
the end of the report. They may be given first, especially
in recommendation reports. They are also sometimes
treated briefly in the letter of transmittal, preface, and
separate summary section.
Conclusions embody the inferences and findings of the
report, whereas the function of recommendations is to
suggest the future course of action.
SUPPLEMENTARY PARTS
Appendices : This section of your report is used for
information which has some relevance to the report but
cannot be easily fitted into the text. An Appendix should
contain:
∑ Material not strictly related to the main argument of the
report but which nevertheless is of interest
∑ Materials which the readers can safely omit but can
consult if they want to examine the details, and also to
carry out further study
Appendix contains materials such as sample documents,
detailed calculations, experimental results, statistical data
tables and graphs, specimen questionnaires or samples of
forms used in investigations.
Bibliography: (References/Sources/Works Cited): A
bibliography is an alphabetical list of the sources – books,
magazines, newspapers, CD-ROMs, Internet, interviews
–that you have consulted in preparing your report. The
list is used to:
∑ Give your readers information to identify and consult
your sources
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∑ Acknowledge and give credit to your sources
You may name this section References or Sources if it
includes works consulted but not mentioned in your
report.
You may call this section ‘Works Cited’ if you list only the
works that are mentioned in the report.
The details you require to prepare a bibliography are:
∑ Author
∑ Title
∑ Place of publication
∑ Publisher
∑ Date/year of publication
∑ Page number(s) for articles from magazines, journals,
periodicals, newspapers etc.
Footnotes and Endnotes: Footnotes and Endnotes are used
to give credit to sources of any material borrowed,
summarized, or paraphrased. They are intended to refer
readers to the exact pages of the works listed in the
Bibliography section.
The main difference between footnotes and endnotes is
that footnotes are placed numerically at the foot of the
very same page where direct references are made, while
endnotes are placed numerically at the end of the
chapter, on a separate page entitled Endnotes or Notes.
Examples:Footnote/Endnote-
Swapan Saha, The Making of ‘Beder Meye Jyotsna’
(Kolkata: Indrapuri, 1998), 100.
Bibliography-
Saha, Swapan. The Making of ‘Beder Meye Jyotsna’ .
Kolkata: Indrapuri, 1998.
Glossary: This is a list of technical words used in the
report and their explanations. The decision whether to
include a glossary or not depends upon your readers.
Index: The index is intended to serve as a quick guide to
locate the material in your report. It is arranged in
alphabetical order. Your readers can locate a topic,
sub-topic or any other important aspect of the report
quickly and easily.
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WRITING THE REPORT
First Draft:
The last stage is that of writing the report. First a rough
draft of the report is prepared. Then it is revised, edited,
and given finishing touches. The writer should be careful
about the language of the report, which needs to be
simple, unambiguous, and free from grammatical errors
as discussed earlier.
Visual Aids :Visual Aids are part of the Discussion section
of your report. You might have observed that most of the
technical reports include illustrations such as tables,
graphs, maps, diagrams, charts or photographs . In fact,
text and illustrations are complementary in technical
reports.
Illustrations are very effective when you have a mass of
statistics and complex ideas to be represented in your
report. Whenever you realize that illustrations can best
explain your data, you should use them. But it is not
advisable to use visual aids just for the sake of using
them.
You already know that visual communication has more
impact than verbal communication. Using illustrations has
many advantages as listed below:
• Supports and reinforces your words
• Arouses interest and focuses on essentials
• Leads the reader to quicker comprehension
• Explains the data in much lesser space but with greater
accuracy
• Makes your descriptions vivid and eye-catching
• Saves much time and effort in explaining and
interpreting complex ideas
• Emphasizes and clarifies certain facts and relationships
• Renders a professional flavour to your report
• Simplifies numerical data
Some guidelines to use illustrations effectively in your
reports :
• Provide neat, accurate and self-contained illustrations.
• Choose illustrations appropriate to the data.
• Label them completely.
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• Make sure that they are self-contained.
• Integrate each illustration with the text.
• Place them as close to the first reference as possible.
• See to their size so that even on reproduction, they are
clear.
• Establish a balance between the verbal and the visual.
REVISING, EDITING, AND PROOFREADING : After
completing the first draft of your report, you need to
re-examine it carefully. The type of your report, its
utility, the time available, and also the effectiveness of
the first draft determine the amount of revision needed.
The first draft is reviewed for the following:
• Accuracy of facts
• Clarity of expression
• Suitability and conformity of illustrations
• Effectiveness in expression
• Overall organization
• Correctness of layout
• Adequacy and appropriateness of the contents to meet
the set objectives
• Grammatical accuracy
Basically, editing is the same as revising because its
purpose is to correct and improve the report; to prepare
and check the final copy.
Proofreading is done at each stage of preparing your first
draft to ensure correctness. The proofreaders should read
the copy as a whole, and then check it for form, layout,
and mechanical accuracy. The proofreaders should read
each word and phrase carefully and thoroughly check the
punctuation marks. Almost everybody uses the
word-processing software these days and hence tends to
proofread the soft copy rather than the printout. But it is
necessary to proofread the print version especially for
longer documents as the human eye may overlook the
errors while reading from the computer monitor.